The birthstone of December is turquoise, eye-catching blue stone that has been capturing eyes and hearts for centuries. The reason for its historical significance is that turquoise has been highly valued by a great number of ancient colonies who believed that it posessed strong unearthly attributes. This has triggered imitation jewels becoming popular in jewellery in the modern day, leading to a higher worth placed on genuine turquoise. Turquoise is one of the few opaque gemstones, giving it a unique deep-pigmented colour which can vary from green to sky blue depending on its make-up, with or without black veins threaded across the stone called its matrix. Having been mined since as long ago as 3,000 BC, understandably resources of the mineral is running very low. Turquoise is made from hydrated copper aluminium phosphate and it occurs in igneous rocks which are rich in aluminium. Bright blue is the most sought-after type of the stone, a popular colour in fashion and jewellery. Turquoise has a historical past rivalled by no other jewel. Turquoise and blue topaz are the birthstones of December, and Turquoise is additionally the traditional jewel for those celebrating their 6th or 11th wedding anniversaries. And think of the iconic gold death mask of Tutankhamen: it too is embedded with precious turquoise gems. The mummy of Queen Zer, the ancient Eqyptian monarch, was discovered adorned in four vivid turquoise bracelets when she was excavated in 1900. She had chosen the precious stone to wear for 7,500 years. Even nowadays turquoise is seen as having protective properties. If given as a gift turquoise is regarded as a sign of friendship. Literally translated it means “Turkish”, a nod to its history when Levantine merchants imported the gemstone to Europe via Turkey. Wearing the birthstone associated with your birthday is believed to give good luck and protection, and what better way to wear it than in a gorgeous turquoise bracelet or necklace, hand crafted and finished in Sterling silver or 9ct gold. In the 16th century American Indians thought that turquoise embodied the spirits of the sea and skies, using it as both a type of currency and also to bring success and protection to warriors and hunters. Around Asia the jewel was believed to guard from the evil eye, and the Aztecs reserved the stone for the Gods in ceremonial masks. In modern gemstone therapy it is thought to improve confidence and relieve depressive disorders, stomach problems, viral infections and rheumatism. Turquoise was one of the first semi-precious gems to be excavated, mainly within the Sinai area of Egypt, Iran, and the south west United States and Mexico.

Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by weight of silver and 7.5% by weight of other metals, usually copper. Their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, was called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. In 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. The Hanseatic League was officially active in the London trade from 1266 to 1597. This etymology may have been first suggested by Walter de Pinchebek (c. Another argument is that the Hanseatic League was the source for both the origin of its definition and manufacture, and in its name is that the German name for the Baltic is Ostsee, or ‘East Sea’, and from this the Baltic merchants were called “Osterlings”, or “Easterlings”. Because the League’s money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, which was contracted to sterling. The British numismatist Philip Grierson disagrees with the “star” etymology, as the stars appeared on Norman pennies only for the single three-year issue from 1077 to 1080 (the Normans changed coin designs every three years). Byzantine solidus, originally known as the solidus aureus meaning ‘solid gold‘ or ‘reliable gold‘. 1142) uses the Latin forms libræ sterilensium and libræ sterilensis monetæ. The word in origin refers to the newly introduced Norman silver penny. Recent examples of these alloys include argentium, sterlium and silvadium. The claim has been made in Henry Spelman’s glossary (Glossarium Archaiologicum) as referenced in Commentaries on the Laws of England by William Blackstone. By 1854, the tie between Easterling and Sterling was well-established, as Ronald Zupko quotes in his dictionary of weights. Fine silver, which is 99.9% pure silver, is relatively soft, so silver is usually alloyed with copper to increase its hardness and strength. Such elements include germanium, zinc, platinum, silicon, and boron. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the most plausible etymology is a derivation from a late Old English steorling (with, or like, a ‘little star’), as some early Norman pennies were imprinted with a small star. One of the earliest attestations of the term is in Old French form esterlin, in a charter of the abbey of Les Préaux, dating to either 1085 or 1104. The English chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. In support of this he cites the fact that one of the first acts of the Normans was to restore the coinage to the consistent weight and purity it had in the days of Offa, King of Mercia. 1300) with the explanation that the coin was originally made by moneyers from that region.

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This would have been perceived as a contrast to the progressive debasement of the intervening 200 years, and would therefore be a likely source for a nickname. In Colonial America, sterling silver was used for currency and general goods as well. Although silversmiths of this era were typically familiar with all precious metals, they primarily worked in sterling silver. REX (“King Henry”) but this was added later, in the reign of Henry III. Between 1634 and 1776, some 500 silversmiths created items in the “New World” ranging from simple buckles to ornate Rococo coffee pots. 12th century in the area that is now northern Germany. The colonies lacked an assay office during this time (the first would be established in 1814), so American silversmiths adhered to the standard set by the London Goldsmiths Company: sterling silver consisted of 91.5-92.5% by weight silver and 8.5-7.5 wt% copper. Colonial silversmiths used many of the techniques developed by those in Europe. Stamping each of their pieces with their personal maker’s mark, colonial silversmiths relied upon their own status to guarantee the quality and composition of their products. Casting was frequently the first step in manufacturing silver pieces, as silver workers would melt down sterling silver into easily manageable ingots. A piece of sterling silver dating from Henry II’s reign was used as a standard in the Trial of the Pyx until it was deposited at the Royal Mint in 1843. It bears the royal stamp ENRI. 3⁄4 pennyweights of alloy, with 20 pennyweights to the troy ounce.

Occasionally, they would create small components (e.g. teapot legs) by casting silver into iron or graphite molds, but it was rare for an entire piece to be fabricated via casting. Cutlery sets were often accompanied by tea sets, hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces. There was a marked increase in the number of silver companies that emerged during that period. To restore the workability, the silversmith would anneal the piece-that is, heat it to a dull red and then quench it in water-to relieve the stresses in the material and return it to a more ductile state. The height of the silver craze was during the 50-year period from 1870 to 1920. Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces. Following the Revolutionary War, Revere acquired and made use of a silver rolling mill from England. He retired a wealthy artisan, his success partly due to this strategic investment. Hammering required more time than all other silver manufacturing processes, and therefore accounted for the majority of labor costs. This was especially true during the Victorian period, when etiquette dictated no food should be touched with one’s fingers. With the onset of the first Industrial Revolution, silversmithing declined as an artistic occupation. To reduce the amount of counterfeiting of silver items. To indicate the purity of the silver alloy used in the manufacture or hand-crafting of the piece. To note the date and/or location of the manufacture or tradesman. From about 1840 to 1940 in the United States and Europe, sterling silver cutlery (US: ‘flatware’) became de rigueur when setting a proper table. Finally, they would file and polish their work to remove all seams, finishing off with engraving and stamping the smith’s mark. The American revolutionary Paul Revere was regarded as one of the best silversmiths from this “Golden Age of American Silver“. Silversmiths would then seam parts together to create complex and artistic items, sealing the gaps with a solder of 80 wt% silver and 20 wt% bronze. The hammering occurred at room temperature, and, like any cold forming process, caused work hardening of the silver, which become increasingly brittle and difficult to shape. Although he is celebrated for his beautiful hollowware, Revere made his fortune primarily on low-end goods produced by the mill, such as flatware. More commonly, a silversmith would forge an ingot into the desired shape, often hammering the thinned silver against specially shaped dies to “mass produce” simple shapes like the oval end of a spoon. To identify the silversmith or company that made the piece.

The interest in sterling silver extended to business (paper clips, mechanical pencils, letter openers, calling card boxes, cigarette cases), to the boudoir (dresser trays, mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoehorns, perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips) and even to children (cups, cutlery, rattles). Use as surgical and medical instruments as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt and Rome, and their use continued until largely replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items and sharper, more durable steel ones. Use as jewelry rings, bracelets, earrings and necklaces. Web article by Jeffrey Herman, silversmith, specialist in silver restoration and conservation. Some brasswind instrument manufacturers use 92.5% sterling silver as the material for making their instruments, including the flute and saxophone. Techniques such as wheel polishing, which are typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion. The alloy‘s natural malleability is an obvious physical advantage, but it is also naturally aseptic. As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air. Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older pieces. The black silver sulfide (Ag2S) is among the most insoluble salts in aqueous solution, a property that is exploited for separating silver ions from other positive ions. Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top. However, it is attacked by common components of atmospheric pollution: silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low level ozone reacts to form silver oxide. Chemically, silver is not very reactive-it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. For example, some leading saxophone manufacturers such as Selmer and Yanagisawa have crafted some of their saxophones from sterling silver. Several products have been developed for the purpose of polishing silver that serve to remove sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it.